When Danger Strikes

How Faculty and Students Should Respond During an Active Shooter Incident

By John Fisher (assisted by AI)

Active shooter situations unfold quickly and without warning. In the chaos of those first moments, knowing how to respond can save lives. Both faculty and students play critical roles in protecting themselves and others, and research from past school and campus incidents provides clear guidance on what works. Drawing from decades of experience, experts like Ms. Susan Payne and Dr. Sarah Goodrum emphasize the need for preparedness, calm decision-making, and consistent response strategies.

Below is a straightforward, practical guide for what to do if an active shooter event occurs on a college campus.

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What You Should Do Immediately

1. RUN — If You Can Escape, Do It First

If it is safe to evacuate the area, run immediately.

• Leave belongings behind

• Help others escape if possible

• Prevent others from entering the danger zone

• Keep your hands visible for responding officers

• Call 911 when you reach safety

Ms. Payne emphasized:

“Modern response training teaches us to move toward safety immediately. Seconds matter.”

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2. HIDE — If Escape Isn’t Possible, Hide Effectively

If you cannot run, your next step is to hide.

Choose a hiding place that:

• has a door you can lock or barricade

• is out of the shooter’s line of sight

• provides solid coverage, not just concealment

• allows you to remain quiet and undetected

Turn off lights, silence phones, stay low, and remain completely still.

Dr. Goodrum explained:

“Hiding works when people choose a secure space, stay silent, and deny the attacker access.”

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Sheltering in Place: When and What It Means

Sheltering in place means staying where you are and making that space as secure as possible. It is used when leaving the area would put you in greater danger.

When to Shelter in Place

Shelter in place when:

• the shooter is nearby and evacuation is unsafe

• you cannot reach an exit without crossing the attacker’s path

• you receive a lockdown notification

• law enforcement instructs you to stay put

• the building layout makes escape unclear

Dr. Goodrum emphasized:

“A safety plan can break down when we don’t execute the basics. Sheltering in place works when people stay quiet, hidden, and secure behind locked or barricaded doors.”

What Sheltering in Place Involves

To shelter in place effectively:

• Lock the door immediately

• Barricade using desks, tables, cabinets, or other solid objects

• Turn off lights

• Silence phones and devices

• Stay out of sight—preferably behind solid cover

• Remain absolutely quiet

• Move to a corner not visible from windows

• Do not open the door for anyone except clearly identified law enforcement

As Ms. Payne noted:

“Sheltering in place saves lives. It’s one of the most effective strategies when escape isn’t possible and the threat is still active.”

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3. FIGHT — As a Last Resort

If you cannot run or hide, and your life is in immediate danger, be prepared to defend yourself.

Use whatever is available:

• chairs

• fire extinguishers

• laptops

• heavy backpacks

• scissors or tools

Act aggressively and commit fully. Work as a group if possible.

Ms. Payne explained:

“It is rare to reach the ‘fight’ moment, but if you do, act decisively. Hesitation can cost lives.”

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What Faculty Should Do Specifically

1. Calm and Direct Your Students

Your voice and demeanor guide the room.

• Speak clearly

• Give firm, simple instructions

• Keep students as calm as possible

2. Lock Down the Classroom

If evacuation isn’t safe:

• lock the doors immediately

• barricade using desks, tables, or cabinets

• turn off lights

• move everyone out of sight

• silence all devices

3. Account for Students After You Reach Safety

Once the threat is neutralized:

• assist police

• communicate with administrators

• report missing or injured students

• support reunification efforts

4. Know Campus Protocols

Make sure you’re familiar with:

• emergency procedures

• evacuation routes

• shelter-in-place guidelines

• reporting tools like SafeUT

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What Students Should Do Specifically

1. Know Your Options Beforehand

Review each classroom you enter:

• Where are the exits?

• What can serve as a barricade?

• Where can you hide?

• What could be used as a defensive tool?

2. Follow Instructions

In emergencies, unified action saves lives. Follow faculty and police directions quickly.

3. Help Others if Possible

Assist classmates who panic or freeze—but only if it is safe.

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How Law Enforcement Responds

Modern law enforcement no longer waits outside.

As Ms. Payne explained:

“Columbine changed everything. Officers now go directly to the threat to stop the violence as fast as possible.”

Follow all commands, keep your hands visible, and do not run toward officers.

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Conclusion

Active shooter incidents are unpredictable and frightening, but preparation saves lives. By understanding the “Run, Hide, Fight” model, knowing when to shelter in place, and responding quickly and calmly, faculty and students can greatly increase their chances of staying safe. No plan eliminates all risk—but awareness, training, and decisive action remain our strongest tools.

Lessons From Tragedy

How K–12 and College Shootings Have Shaped School Safety Since 1999

By John Fisher (assisted by AI)

The history of school and campus shootings in the United States has reshaped how we think about safety, prevention, and intervention. From Columbine in 1999 to Virginia Tech, Arapahoe, and Parkland, each tragedy revealed missed warning signs—along with opportunities to prevent future attacks. Two leading experts in the field, Ms. Susan Payne and Dr. Sarah Goodrum, have spent decades studying these incidents and helping schools implement effective safety strategies. Their insights offer a clear picture of how school violence has evolved and what we’ve learned along the way.

From Columbine to Today

Columbine in 1999 marked a turning point. As Ms. Payne explained:

“Columbine was the first major mass-media school shooting. It changed how law enforcement responds and how communities protect students.”

At the time, police were trained to set up a perimeter and wait for specialized units. Columbine revealed serious flaws in that approach. It also exposed the dangers of unshared information—both the school and law enforcement had concerning reports about the attackers, but the pieces were never connected.

The tragedy prompted Colorado to create Safe2Tell, a confidential reporting tool that empowered students to speak up early about threats, bullying, or harmful behavior. Utah later adapted this model into SafeUT.

Virginia Tech

The 2007 Virginia Tech shooting remains one of the deadliest attacks on a college campus. Dr. Goodrum noted:

“Even with strong policies in place, tragedies can show us gaps in implementation—especially in how we respond to students of concern after an assessment.”

Families and survivors helped shape nationwide reforms that strengthened the role of campus threat assessment teams and improved communication between departments.

Arapahoe, Parkland, and Missed Opportunities

The 2013 Arapahoe High School shooting demonstrated that training alone isn’t enough. Follow-up and long-term monitoring matter just as much as initial assessment.

Parkland revealed over 100 missed opportunities to intervene. The attacker had dozens of police contacts and disciplinary referrals—clear warning signs that were never effectively connected.

These patterns highlight the need for consistent, coordinated approaches to identifying and managing individuals on the pathway to violence.

Conclusion

The history of school and campus shootings is painful, but it has taught us how to intervene earlier and more effectively. Each case—Columbine, Virginia Tech, Arapahoe, Parkland—reveals the same message: information must be shared, warning signs must be recognized, and intervention must be consistent. Understanding this history is essential to building safer schools and campuses today.

After the Unthinkable

 

Essential Steps for Safety and Response After a Campus Tragedy

By John Fisher (assisted by AI)

When a tragedy occurs on a college campus, such as the recent shooting at UVU involving Charlie Kirk, the community faces tremendous shock and disruption. While every situation is different, decades of research and after-action reviews show there are consistent steps institutions can take to protect students, restore stability, and prevent further harm. Drawing from national cases—including Columbine, Virginia Tech, and Arapahoe—experts offer a clear framework for post-incident safety and recovery.

1. Immediate Threat Response

Modern law enforcement is trained to move toward the threat, not wait outside. Ms. Susan Payne emphasized:

“Columbine completely changed how we train officers. Today the expectation is to go directly to the threat to stop the violence as quickly as possible.”

This shift has saved lives in subsequent incidents.

2. Clear Communication Across Campus

After a tragedy, students and staff need rapid, accurate information. Institutions should:

• issue timely alerts

• provide clear instructions

• identify safe areas, lockdown procedures, or evacuation routes

• avoid speculation

• update regularly

Confusion can increase fear and create secondary safety risks.

3. Threat Assessment and Prevention Review

Dr. Sarah Goodrum explained:

“A safety system can fail not in the assessment, but in the follow-up. After a tragedy, institutions must review what was known, how it was shared, and what interventions were offered.”

Post-incident reviews help identify breakdowns in:

• communication

• policy implementation

• follow-through with students of concern

• mental health referral processes

4. Support for Students, Staff, and Families

Trauma responses vary widely. Institutions must provide:

• counseling services

• spaces for reflection

• academic flexibility

• community gatherings

• long-term mental health support

This phase cannot be rushed; healing takes time.

5. Independent Review and Accountability

Following the Arapahoe tragedy, Colorado passed the Claire Davis School Safety Act, requiring third-party independent reviews and eliminating governmental immunity for failures related to serious acts of violence.

This model encourages transparency and institutional learning.

Conclusion

A campus tragedy affects every part of the community, but history shows that strong communication, immediate protective actions, comprehensive threat assessment, and long-term support make recovery possible. By learning from past incidents and applying proven steps, colleges can respond effectively and strengthen safety for the future.

Speak Up Early

How to Report Concerns and Seek Help Before Violence Occurs

By John Fisher (assisted by AI)

One of the most important lessons from past school and campus tragedies is that warning signs almost always appear before violence occurs. Students, faculty, staff, and community members play a vital role in recognizing those signs and speaking up. Programs like SafeUT exist for exactly this purpose: to make it easy, confidential, and effective to report concerns and connect people with help.

Why Reporting Matters

After reviewing cases from Columbine to Parkland, Ms. Susan Payne stated:

“We created Safe2Tell so young people and community members could be part of the solution—so they would know what to look for, what to report, and that someone would follow up.”

Dr. Goodrum added that reporting is critical not just for identifying threats, but also for connecting struggling students with support:

“It’s not enough to assess a concern. We must provide resources, check in, and guide the student toward stability and help.”

What to Report

People often worry about "overreacting." But research shows early reporting can prevent tragedies. Report when you see:

• threats or discussion of violence

• drastic changes in behavior

• stalking or harassment

• suicidal statements

• weapons or talk of weapons

• online postings expressing anger, hate, or harm

• bullying or ongoing conflicts

• signs of depression, isolation, or fear

• concerning behavior toward peers or staff

If something feels wrong, it’s safer to report.

Where to Report

In Utah, the primary tool is SafeUT, available as an app, website, or phone line. It allows students and community members to:

• report safety concerns

• submit anonymous tips

• talk or text with mental health counselors

• access crisis support

• support peers who are struggling

On college campuses, students can also reach out to:

• campus police

• student affairs offices

• behavioral intervention teams (BIT)

• faculty or advisors

• Title IX coordinators

• counseling and psychological services

How Reporting Helps

Reports trigger:

• early intervention

• coordinated safety planning

• mental health support

• communication between departments

• monitoring and follow-up

• prevention of escalation

Most cases never become violent because someone speaks up early and the right team responds.

Conclusion

We all have a part to play in keeping our schools and campuses safe. Reporting is not about getting someone in trouble—it’s about getting them help. Programs like SafeUT save lives by making it easy to share concerns, seek support, and intervene before behavior escalates. When in doubt, speak up.

Emergency Response Management

 

Comparing Emergency Services Response in Non-Emergency and Emergency Situations

by John Fisher (assisted by AI)

EEmergency services organizations—fire, EMS, and law enforcement—depend on the Incident Command System (ICS) to manage personnel, communication, and decision-making under stress. Yet, the same principles guiding large-scale emergencies are equally relevant in day-to-day, non-emergency operations. Examples from emergency management coursework show how ICS principles such as Unity of Command, Span of Control, and Active Listening promote safety, efficiency, and accountability in both contexts. This essay compares how emergency service personnel apply ICS management principles in non-emergency and emergency settings, showing that the difference lies not in the principles themselves but in the urgency, scale, and consequences of their application.

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ICS Principles in Non-Emergency Situations

Non-emergency environments—training sessions, administrative meetings, hospital routines, and community events—offer opportunities to practice ICS structure without the pressure of life-threatening conditions. These settings demonstrate how structure and communication can enhance performance and reduce confusion.

For instance, hospitals illustrate Unity of Command clearly: nurses report to a charge nurse, who then reports to a manager. This hierarchy prevents conflicting orders and ensures accountability. A similar example can be seen in retail or restaurant environments, where workers assigned to one task—such as managing a drive-through window—should continue reporting to their shift supervisor rather than taking conflicting directions from another manager. These examples demonstrate how Unity of Command clarifies authority, reduces confusion, and ensures that operations proceed smoothly even under pressure (Federal Emergency Management Agency [FEMA], 2019).

Span of Control is another ICS concept that applies in everyday work environments. When supervisors manage too many subordinates, efficiency and communication often decline. In corporate offices, schools, and healthcare facilities, maintaining a reasonable supervisor-to-staff ratio prevents burnout and miscommunication. A parallel can be drawn in education: smaller class sizes allow teachers to provide individual attention, just as a fire captain managing fewer subordinates can ensure safer oversight (FEMA, 2019).

Non-emergency contexts also serve as training grounds for communication principles such as Active Listening. During meetings and training exercises, attentive listening ensures understanding, builds trust, and prevents errors. This practice mirrors what occurs in emergency response—where active listening becomes a survival skill. As one discussion highlighted, building rapport and ensuring clarity through listening promotes teamwork and readiness long before an actual crisis occurs.

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ICS Principles in Emergency Situations

In emergency situations—such as fires, floods, or mass-casualty incidents—ICS principles are applied more rigidly and with immediate life-and-death consequences. Span of Control and Unity of Command are not just administrative tools; they become critical safety mechanisms.

During large-scale emergencies like wildfires, for example, an incident commander delegates responsibilities to division supervisors, each managing no more than five subordinates. This ratio prevents communication overload and ensures that information is transmitted quickly and accurately. FEMA (2019) emphasizes that maintaining a span of control between three and seven individuals enhances operational safety and efficiency. When this structure breaks down, as it did during Hurricane Katrina, confusion and inefficiency hindered coordination among agencies (Moynihan, 2009).

Unity of Command is equally essential during emergencies. Firefighters and emergency medical personnel are trained to follow a single supervisor—their captain or incident commander—to avoid conflicting directions. Clear authority lines reduce duplicated efforts and prevent unsafe actions. This same principle was evident during the coordinated response to Hurricane Harvey in 2017, when local, state, and federal agencies successfully managed complex rescue operations by maintaining a unified chain of command (U.S. Government Accountability Office [GAO], 2018).

Active Listening also becomes crucial under high-stress conditions. For example, in one reported fire response, a crew’s timely radio communication about a potential roof collapse allowed the incident commander to order an immediate evacuation, preventing potential fatalities. This incident underscores how effective communication and listening within the ICS framework can mean the difference between safety and tragedy.

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Comparison of Non-Emergency and Emergency Applications

The difference between non-emergency and emergency use of ICS lies mainly in urgency, structure, and consequence. In non-emergency settings, ICS principles enhance efficiency, teamwork, and preparation. Mistakes in these contexts may cause inconvenience or inefficiency but rarely threaten lives. In emergencies, however, the same principles must be applied precisely to prevent chaos and ensure safety.

In non-emergency situations, leaders have time to explain, coach, and adapt. In emergencies, they must issue concise directives that subordinates follow without delay. Both situations rely on the same foundation: clear authority, effective communication, and appropriate delegation. As FEMA (2019) notes, every responder must understand who is in charge and how information flows through the system.

Non-emergency situations serve as essential preparation for crisis management. Routine drills, simulations, and workplace hierarchies help responders internalize ICS procedures so that when real emergencies occur, the structure is second nature. The consistency of ICS principles ensures that responders can act quickly, coordinate efficiently, and maintain safety under the most challenging circumstances.

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Conclusion

The Incident Command System provides a universal structure adaptable to both calm and crisis. Principles such as Unity of Command, Span of Control, and Active Listening transcend emergency management—they represent fundamental truths of leadership and organization. In non-emergency environments, these principles create efficiency, accountability, and harmony. In emergencies, they ensure safety, clarity, and life-saving coordination. As FEMA (2019) emphasizes, maintaining clarity of command and manageable supervision is essential for effective operations. Ultimately, non-emergency practice builds the habits that make emergency response possible. Whether managing a school, coordinating a hospital unit, or leading a wildfire response, ICS principles remain central to effective leadership and communication.

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References

Federal Emergency Management Agency. (2019). IS-200.C: Basic Incident Command System for Initial Response. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. https://training.fema.gov/is/courseoverview.aspx?code=IS-200.c

Moynihan, D. P. (2009). The response to Hurricane Katrina. Public Administration Review, 69(5), 684–696. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6210.2009.02030.x

U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2018). 2017 hurricanes and wildfires: Initial observations on the federal response and key recovery challenges. https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-18-472

Comminty Resilience after Tragedy

 

How do communities show resilience after a tragic event? 

by John Fisher (assisted by AI)

Communities show resilience after tragic events by combining leadership, planning, and strong social networks. As Sanders, Tompkins, and Huber (2025) note, “Leadership, planning, and funding can save lives—and money—in an era of increasing risk.” Proactive measures such as appointing Chief Resilience Officers, aligning policies with disaster risks, and investing in preparedness allow communities to withstand and recover from disasters more effectively. At the same time, resilience is built through relationships and support systems. Starr (2025) explains, “Resilience is not a single fix. It’s a system of shared care built by people who want to help our communities survive.” In practice, neighbors, faith groups, and local organizations often serve as first responders, offering resources, emotional support, and safe spaces during a crisis.

Resilience also requires inclusion and long-term recovery strategies. The National Center for Disaster Preparedness (n.d.) emphasizes that “much of NCDP research on community resilience focuses on vulnerable populations and how we can develop the resources to support them in a disaster.” Local volunteer groups contribute significantly, as “citizen groups and coordinated efforts of local volunteers can respond to lessen the impacts and ‘build back better’” (Johnston et al., 2022; Ryan et al., 2020). Beyond immediate response, rebuilding provides opportunities for improvement. According to the Institute of Medicine (2015), “The disaster recovery process offers a series of unique and valuable opportunities to improve on the status quo.” These examples show that resilience is both a short-term response and a long-term commitment to building healthier, stronger, and more sustainable communities.

Application

When tragedy struck in Grand Blanc, Michigan — with the deaths of four people and the burning of an LDS Church — both members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and non-member neighbors showed resilience by coming together in remarkable ways.

Public Unity and Kindness

Community leaders and residents quickly emphasized unity and compassion. The Grand Blanc school superintendent declared, “We are unified in this: This will not define us” (Bridge Michigan, 2025). Vigils, prayers, and acts of kindness across the community became visible reminders of shared strength.

Compassion Toward the Shooter’s Family

Resilience also took the form of extraordinary compassion. Utah church member Dave Butler organized a fundraiser that raised over $275,000 to support the family of the gunman. He explained, “Jesus tells us that we should do this,” highlighting forgiveness as an act of faith (AP News, 2025).

Cross-Community Religious Support

Other congregations also stepped forward. Leaders at The River Church in Genesee County hosted vigils and prayers for the LDS congregation, showing solidarity across denominational lines (WXYZ, 2025).

Heroic and Sacrificial Responses

During the attack, some congregants and professionals shielded children and guided others to safety. The local police chief praised their “very courageous actions” (CBS Detroit, 2025). Medical personnel also provided emergency care, further demonstrating community strength.

Institutional and Victim Support

The FBI’s Victim Services Division partnered with local and state agencies to provide support to victims and families, reinforcing institutional trust and ensuring care beyond the immediate crisis (FBI Detroit, 2025).

Conclusion

Resilience in Grand Blanc was shown not only by surviving tragedy but by responding with compassion, unity, and faith. The community’s ability to rally together — offering forgiveness, support, and shared strength — demonstrated how even in the darkest moments, hope and humanity endure.

References

AP News. (2025, October 2). Fundraiser for family of Michigan church gunman raises more than $275,000. https://apnews.com/article/66189189c72aff983e86bb035f6899f2Links to an external site.

Bridge Michigan. (2025, September 30). Grand Blanc pledges kindness, unity after ‘horrible evil’ of church shooting. https://bridgemi.com/michigan-government/grand-blanc-pledges-kindness-unity-after-horrible-evil-of-church-shooting/Links to an external site.

CBS Detroit. (2025, October). Grand Blanc Township police release new video of deadly Michigan church attack. https://www.cbsnews.com/detroit/news/grand-blanc-township-police-provide-update-deadly-michigan-church-attack/Links to an external site.

FBI Detroit. (2025). FBI Detroit update on shooting and fire at Grand Blanc LDS Church. https://www.fbi.gov/contact-us/field-offices/detroit/news/fbi-detroit-update-on-shooting-and-fire-at-grand-blanc-lds-churchLinks to an external site.

Institute of Medicine. (2015). Healthy, resilient, and sustainable communities after disasters: Strategies, opportunities, and planning for recovery. National Academies Press. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/resource/18996/postdisaster-RB-FINAL.pdfLinks to an external site.

Johnston, L., Ryan, M., & others. (2022). A community approach to disaster preparedness and response. Penn State Extension. https://extension.psu.edu/a-community-approach-to-disaster-preparedness-and-responseLinks to an external site.

National Center for Disaster Preparedness. (n.d.). Recovery & resiliency. Columbia University. https://ncdp.columbia.edu/research/recovery-resiliency/Links to an external site.

Sanders, M., Tompkins, F., & Huber, K. (2025, September 19). Disaster resilience: Key ways to help governments and communities thrive. The Pew Charitable Trusts. https://www.pew.org/en/research-and-analysis/articles/2025/09/19/disaster-resilience-key-ways-to-help-governments-and-communities-thriveLinks to an external site.

Starr, J. J. (2025, August 28). How to make your community more resilient to climate disasters. Natural Resources Defense Council. https://www.nrdc.org/stories/how-make-your-community-more-resilient-climate-disastersLinks to an external site.

WXYZ. (2025). ‘Very courageous actions.’ Police release bodycam video in mass shooting & fire at church. https://www.wxyz.com/news/grand-blanc-tragedy/grand-blanc-twp-police-to-provide-update-on-dead

Public-Private Partnerships

Understanding Types, Purposes, and Implications

By John Fisher, PhD (assisted by AI)

Introduction

Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) have emerged as a vital mechanism for delivering infrastructure, public services, and innovative solutions by combining the strengths of the public and private sectors. These arrangements take many forms, each with distinct objectives, advantages, and challenges. By understanding the different types of PPPs, policymakers, business leaders, and community stakeholders can make informed decisions about how best to structure collaborations that meet public needs while leveraging private sector efficiency.

Utility Restructuring and Corporatization

Utility restructuring and corporatization aim to improve public utility performance without transferring ownership. This model retains government ownership but introduces commercial discipline, enhancing operational efficiency while limiting direct private sector influence (Investopedia, 2024). The advantage lies in improved service delivery without privatization, but the downside is often limited innovation due to minimal private sector involvement.

Civil Works and Service Contracts

In civil works and service contracts, governments outsource specific services or construction tasks to private entities. These contracts are typically short-term, making them quick to implement and cost-effective (WallStreetMojo, 2022). However, because they are limited in scope, they rarely involve significant risk transfer or long-term strategic alignment between partners.

Management and Operating Contracts

Management and operating contracts engage a private entity to manage public services or assets for a fixed fee. This model improves efficiency and operational expertise while keeping assets under public ownership (Investopedia, 2024). Still, without private investment, these partnerships may not drive substantial innovation or infrastructure growth.

Leases and Affermage Contracts

Leases and affermage contracts give a private party operational control and the right to collect revenue from users, while ownership remains public. The incentive for efficient service is high, and operational risks shift to the private partner (World Bank, n.d.). Yet, because capital investment still falls to the public sector, major infrastructure improvements may be limited.

Concessions and BOT/DBO Models

Concession agreements and Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) or Design-Build-Operate (DBO) models involve the private sector taking on full lifecycle responsibility for infrastructure projects. These arrangements encourage innovation and efficiency, often producing high-quality outcomes (WallStreetMojo, 2022). However, they are complex to negotiate and come with high financial risks for both parties.

Joint Ventures and Partial Divestiture

Joint ventures share ownership and management responsibilities between public and private stakeholders. This model fosters strategic collaboration and shared risk but can face governance challenges and unclear accountability if roles are not clearly defined (Investopedia, 2024).

Privatization and Full Divestiture

Privatization transfers full ownership and operational control to the private sector, maximizing private investment and efficiency potential. While this can lead to improved services and reduced public spending, it carries risks of monopolistic practices and a loss of public oversight (World Bank, n.d.).

Advantages and Disadvantages Across Models

In general, PPPs can bring efficiency, access to capital, and innovative approaches to service delivery (WallStreetMojo, 2022.). They also allow risk sharing, assigning responsibility to the party best equipped to manage it. However, these arrangements can be legally and financially complex, blur lines of accountability, and expose governments to financial risks if demand projections fail.

Case Studies of Successful PPPs

London Underground Upgrade (UK)

The UK government partnered with private companies to modernize sections of the London Underground. The PPP allowed the government to leverage private sector expertise in project management, while ensuring public oversight of service quality. Although initial phases faced challenges, the arrangement ultimately improved operational efficiency and passenger experience (World Bank, n.d.).

Gautrain Rapid Rail Link (South Africa)

In South Africa, the Gautrain project was developed through a concession agreement between the provincial government of Gauteng and a private consortium. The private sector designed, built, and now operates the high-speed rail link, connecting Johannesburg, Pretoria, and O.R. Tambo International Airport. The project has significantly reduced road congestion and improved transit options (Investopedia, 2024).

Queen Alia International Airport Expansion (Jordan)

Jordan’s government entered into a BOT agreement with a private consortium to expand and operate Queen Alia International Airport. The PPP model enabled large-scale infrastructure upgrades without excessive public debt, while meeting international aviation standards. This led to increased passenger capacity and improved global connectivity (WallStreetMojo, 2022).

These examples show how PPPs can be tailored to specific needs, delivering measurable benefits in transportation and infrastructure while balancing public oversight with private innovation.

Case Studies of Unsuccessful PPPs

Sydney Cross City Tunnel (Australia)

This toll tunnel, developed under a concession model, suffered from poor traffic forecasts and high toll prices. Low usage led to financial collapse for the private operator within two years, forcing a government buyback. The failure was due to unrealistic demand projections and inadequate public consultation (World Bank, n.d.).

Metronet Rail (UK)

Part of the London Underground PPP modernization was handled by Metronet Rail, which entered administration in 2007 due to cost overruns and mismanagement. While other parts of the project succeeded, Metronet’s collapse highlighted the risks of weak governance and insufficient oversight in complex contracts (Investopedia, 2024).

Detroit Water and Sewerage Department Contract (USA)

In the early 2000s, Detroit contracted private management for its water system to improve efficiency. However, disputes over contract terms, alleged poor service quality, and political opposition led to contract termination within two years. The failure underscored the need for strong stakeholder engagement and performance monitoring (WallStreetMojo, 2022).

These failed PPPs illustrate that success depends on realistic planning, transparent governance, and alignment between public interest and private incentives. Without these, even well-intentioned projects can falter.

Conclusion

Public-Private Partnerships are not one-size-fits-all solutions. The right model depends on project goals, available resources, and the desired balance between public control and private sector innovation. By weighing the advantages and disadvantages of each type—and learning from both successful and unsuccessful case studies—decision-makers can structure PPPs that foster efficiency, ensure accountability, and ultimately serve the public interest.

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References

Investopedia. (2024, June 6). Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs): Definition, how they work, and examples. Retrieved from https://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/public-private-partnerships.asp 

WallStreetMojo. (2022, June 2). Public-Private Partnership – Definition, models, types, advantages. Retrieved from https://www.wallstreetmojo.com/public-private-partnership/

World Bank. (n.d.). Introduction to Public-Private Partnerships. Retrieved from https://ppp.worldbank.org/public-private-partnership

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Keywords: public-private partnerships, infrastructure, privatization, BOT model, risk sharing

Hashtags: #PublicPrivatePartnerships #InfrastructureDevelopment #Privatization #PPPs #Governance

Decision-making and Effective Leadership

 

Image of four businesss people created by Co-pilot

Cognitive Barriers, Creativity, and Adaptability in Decision Making

by John Fisher (assisted by AI)

Decision-making is at the heart of effective leadership, yet it remains one of the most complex and high-stakes responsibilities faced by executives. While many organizations focus on refining decision-making processes, research shows that internal, cognitive factors often play a more significant role in shaping outcomes. Biases, emotional influences, and flawed mental models can subtly undermine even the most structured approaches. Drawing on insights from recent academic literature, this analysis explores three key internal barriers to sound decision-making, the role of creativity and improvisation in navigating uncertainty, and the importance of flexibility and adaptation in dynamic environments. Through real-world examples and scholarly perspectives, we’ll examine how leaders can better understand and manage the psychological dimensions of their decisions.

Three Barriers That Inhibit Good Decision-Making

1. Cognitive Biases
   Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment. According to Berthet (2022), “overconfidence bias is the most frequently observed bias in professionals’ decision-making.” This can lead executives to overestimate their knowledge or underestimate risks.
   Example: In the 2008 financial crisis, many banking executives overestimated the safety of mortgage-backed securities, leading to catastrophic losses.

2. Confirmation Bias
   Decision-makers often seek out information that confirms their pre-existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence. Berthet (2022) notes that this bias “can lead to poor diagnostic accuracy and suboptimal decisions.”
   Example: A tech startup might continue investing in a failing product because leadership is emotionally invested in its success, ignoring market feedback.

3. Emotional and Reward-Based Influences
   Rovelli and Allegretta (2023) highlight how emotional states and reward sensitivity can distort decision-making: “The interplay between executive functions and reward systems can lead to impulsive or short-sighted decisions, especially under stress.”
   Example: A retail chain might slash prices impulsively during a downturn to boost short-term sales, harming long-term brand value.

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How Creativity Aids Decision-Making

Creativity introduces novel perspectives and alternative solutions that might not emerge through analytical thinking alone. It helps break out of rigid mental models and encourages divergent thinking.

“Creative thinking allows decision-makers to reframe problems and generate innovative solutions, especially in complex or ambiguous situations” (Rovelli & Allegretta, 2023).

Example: During the COVID-19 pandemic, many restaurants creatively pivoted to meal kits and virtual cooking classes, turning a crisis into an opportunity.

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Improvisation in Times of Uncertainty: Advantages and Risks

Improvisation can be a powerful tool when rapid decisions are needed, especially in volatile environments. It allows for flexibility, speed, and adaptation.

Advantages:

• Enables quick responses to unexpected challenges.
• Encourages experimentation and learning.

Risks:

• May lead to inconsistent or poorly thought-out actions.
• Can undermine long-term strategy if overused.

“Improvisation, while adaptive, can bypass critical executive functions, increasing susceptibility to biases and emotional decision-making” (Rovelli & Allegretta, 2023).

Example: Elon Musk’s rapid decision-making at Tesla has led to both groundbreaking innovations and public controversies—highlighting both the power and peril of improvisation.

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Flexibility and Adaptation: A Real-World Critique

Defending Flexibility:
Netflix is a prime example of successful adaptation. Originally a DVD rental service, it pivoted to streaming and then to content creation. This flexibility allowed it to stay ahead of competitors and reshape the entertainment industry.

Critique:
However, constant adaptation without a clear vision can dilute brand identity. For instance, Yahoo’s frequent strategic shifts in the 2000s—acquiring and abandoning various services—led to a loss of focus and eventual decline.

“Flexibility must be guided by strategic coherence; otherwise, it risks becoming reactive rather than proactive” (Berthet, 2022).

Conclusion

Good decision-making requires more than just a sound process—it demands awareness of internal cognitive barriers, openness to creativity, and a balanced approach to improvisation and flexibility. By understanding and addressing these internal challenges, leaders can make more informed, resilient, and innovative decisions.

References:

1. Berthet, V. (2022). The impact of cognitive biases on professionals’ decision-making: A review of four occupational areas. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 802439. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.802439
   Read online

2. Rovelli, K., & Allegretta, R. (2023). Framing decision-making: The role of executive functions, cognitive bias and reward. Neuropsychological Trends, 34, 5–18. https://doi.org/10.7358/neur-2023-034-rove
   Access via APA PsycNet