Responder Role in
Disasters and other Emergencies
By John Fisher
Who are first
responders?
The first people on the scene in an emergency or natural
disaster are usually police officers, firefighters, and paramedics, or
emergency medical technicians (EMT). As first responders, they are
trained to react quickly in emergencies. Their first responsibility is to make
sure people are safe, which may include evacuation, rescue, crowd control, and
medical attention. Suppressing fires and controlling other hazards is usually
left to firefighters while police
officers secure the area by redirecting traffic and keeping bystanders away. In
these roles, they serve as “a calming
force, keeping panic and disorder to a minimum” (US Legal, 2010). Paramedics
and EMTs are most often associated with fire departments, many of which require
their people to have both fire and
medical training. SWAT teams may also contain trained paramedics.
Natural disasters spare no one. Matthew Tobia (2013) points
out the ferocity of storms like Hurricane Andrew or Katrina, and, more
recently, Superstorm Sandy. “The same
forces that move homes off their foundations or burn them to ashes don’t just
make left turns around fire stations, sparing them from destruction.” Instead, firefighters and police, paramedics
and EMTs learn to deal with disasters with the tools at hand. This requires
they prepare for the worst scenarios and hope for the best. In addition, to
preparing themselves it also is vital they prepare the communities in which
they live, including their own families.
Because first responders usually live in the communities
they serve, they know their communities well. They know the streets and buildings,
and they understand the people and the local government. This gives them the
advantage, like in Joplin where not a street sign was standing after the 2011
tornado, of being able to respond knowingly and effectively. When a community is leveled they may have
little to work with, but they use their resourcefulness to meet the needs of
their community. Often this will require the joint effort of other agencies and
community members.
One specialized role is that of the fire marshal. A fire
marshal, in the United States and Canada, is often a member of a fire
department but may be part of a building department or a separate department
altogether. Fire marshals' duties vary but usually include fire code
enforcement and/or investigating fires for origin and cause. Fire marshals may
be sworn law-enforcement officers and are often experienced firefighters. Fire
marshals may carry a weapon, wear a badge, wear a uniform or plain clothes, and
make arrests pertaining to arson and related offenses, or, in other localities,
may have duties entirely separate from law enforcement, including building- and
fire-code-related inspections. In many areas, the fire marshal is responsible
for enforcing laws concerning flammable materials.
What is the role of
the National Guard and Coast Guard in disaster situations?
The Army National Guard, the Air National Guard, and the
U.S. Coast Guard provide vital support during natural disasters. The Army
National Guard and Air National Guard have over 300 thousand members in more
than 1,800 National Guard units located in 2,700 communities across the United
States. While the National Guard receives military training for wartime
service, they also are trained in emergency response skills and answer the call
when their service is needed to deal with disasters. The Coast Guard is made up
of active duty, reserve, and civilian personnel and protects the coastal
boundaries of the United States. They performed a vital role in the BP spill
cleanup in 2010 and respond in all disasters along our coastal shores.
While the National Guard is under the jurisdiction of the
federal government when called up for war, they usually serve under state
governments and can be called up by the state governor in response to disasters.
State National Guards work cooperatively with local authorities during emergencies
and natural disasters. National Guard troops help reinforce dams and dikes
threatened by floods, work to contain forest fires, and assist community
rebuilding efforts after hurricanes and tornadoes. Because Guard members have
unique skills like flying helicopters and airplanes and driving trucks, they
serve a vital role in transporting supplies, injured and sick people, and
emergency materials (US Legal, 2010).
What is the role of
hospitals in a disaster?
The role of hospitals in the community response to disasters
has received increased attention, particularly since the terrorist attacks of
September 11, 2001. Hospitals must be prepared to respond to and recover from
all-hazards emergencies and disasters. The continued progress of our medical
response system in all-hazard emergencies and disasters depends in large part
on the future guidance and support from government institutions (Sauer, 2009).
In many communities, hospitals have not been integrated well
into the community disaster response system and thus may not be prepared to
safely treat mass casualties from disasters and incidents involving hazardous materials.
Of particular concern is keeping health
care workers safe. Healthcare workers may
be exposed to chemical, biological, physical or radioactive hazards while
providing care to patients who arrive at the hospital for triage following an
incident involving hazardous materials. Safeguarding health care workers who deal
with emergencies is critical in performing the mission to save lives and
protect the public. The few cases of Ebola to come to the United States in 2014
from Africa showed how unprepared hospitals were to deal with a pandemic. Knowledge about the means to protect health
care workers and understanding of emergency response planning essentials will
help keep healthcare workers safe from
hazardous materials and provide for the treatment of casualties of disasters (OSHA,
1997).
Unlike other institutions, hospitals need to be on 24/7
standby and have essential resources to respond to disasters (Rodak, 2012,
OSHA, 1997). These resources should include:
- Comprehensive community disaster
plans for a wide range of potential events, each with diverse action requirements;
- Training and drills including
practice of the Incident Command System (ICS);
- Back-up
generators;
- Effective communications systems
including a line between the incident and hospital;
- Personal protective equipment that
staff can use to avoid exposure and limit contact with infected patients;
- Decontamination units, which
include trained physicians, nurses, aides, and support staff;
- Decontamination procedures and
designated decontamination areas with necessary equipment;
- Stockpiled medical supplies and
pharmaceuticals;
- Disease surveillance systems including
air monitoring and controls to prevent the movement of airborne substances
through ventilation and duct work;
- Access to information on diseases
and hazardous toxic materials;
- Surge capacity to treat an influx
of patients and plans for treating non-disaster patients;
- Alternative facilities in case of
contamination of the hospital’s emergency department; and
- Post-emergency critique of the
hospital's emergency response.
What training and
education do first responders have?
Following 911 critics called for better training of first
responders to deal with emergencies of the size of the impact of a terrorist attack.
Critics noted that first responders were completely unprepared for
biological and chemical weapons of mass destruction (Heritage, 2002).
Nine days after the September 11th attacks, to Congress President
George W. Bush announced that he would create the Office of Homeland Security
to coordinate the efforts of more than 40 federal agencies in order to prevent future
terrorist attacks. The Office was created nearly a month after the attacks with
Tom Ridge, the former governor of Pennsylvania, as the first the first director.
On January 24, 2003, Ridge became the first Secretary of the U.S. Department of
Homeland Security.
While at first Homeland Security served primarily as a
coordinating body, it later emerged as the principal civilian protector of the
country inside and outside its borders. Its stated goal is to prepare for,
prevent, and respond to domestic emergencies, including terrorism, human-caused
disasters, and natural hazards. One role is to train first responders and
prepare the public for emergencies.
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is an agency in the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). It trains in the
areas of firefighting and emergency management, through the National Fire
Academy and the Emergency Management Institute. The Federal Law Enforcement
Training Center coordinates training for police officers. In preparing for a
disaster, police officers and firefighters
trust in their training and capitalize on their knowledge of a community.
Exercises simulating disaster situations (large- and small-scale events) help
better prepare officers and firefighters and allow them to fully understand the
resources and response needed for each event. First responders know their
communities best and interact with residents on a daily basis. This knowledge
gives them the ability to provide valuable situational awareness to response
and recovery groups coming in to help (Hylton, 2013).
What is NIMS?
The National Incident Management System (NIMS), established
in March 2004 and revised in 2008, is “a systematic, proactive approach to
guide departments and agencies at all levels of government, nongovernmental
organizations, and the private sector to work together seamlessly and manage
incidents involving all threats and hazards—regardless of cause, size,
location, or complexity—in order to reduce loss of life, property and harm to
the environment” (FEMA, 2015).
The purpose of NIMS is to provide a common approach for
managing incidents. It promotes a flexible but standardized set of incident
management practices with emphasis on common principles, a consistent approach
to operational structures and supporting mechanisms, and an integrated approach
to resource management. NIMS is the foundation of the National Preparedness
System (NPS), providing for a unified approach in building and delivering the
core capabilities across all five mission areas (Prevention, Protection,
Mitigation, Response, and Recovery).
Incidents typically begin and end locally, and they are
managed daily at the lowest possible geographical, organizational, and
jurisdictional level. As incidents become larger success may depend on the participation
of many jurisdictions, levels of government, non-governmental
agencies, and all responders. These
instances necessitate effective and efficient coordination across this broad
spectrum of organizations and activities. By using NIMS, communities are part
of a comprehensive national approach that improves the effectiveness of emergency
management and response personnel across the full spectrum of potential threats
and hazards (including natural hazards, terrorist activities, and other
human-caused disasters) regardless of size or complexity. NIMS is a “whole
community” approach, involving community members, first responder agencies,
public and private sectors, and non-governmental and non-profit organizations
(FEMA, 2015).
The National Incident Management System (NIMS) Training
Program defines the national NIMS training program as it relates to the NIMS
components of preparedness, communications and information management, resource management, and command and management. It specifies the National Integration
Center (NIC) and stakeholder responsibilities and activities for developing,
maintaining, and sustaining NIMS training. The NIMS Training Program outlines
responsibilities and activities that are consistent with the National Training
Program, as mandated by the Post-Katrina Emergency Management Reform Act of
2006. This program integrates with FEMA training offered through the Emergency
Management Institute (EMI) and United States Fire Administration (USFA). The National Exercise Program (NEP) is the Nation’s overarching exercise program. All interagency partners have adopted the Homeland Security Exercise and Evaluation Program (HSEEP) as the methodology for all exercises that will be conducted as part of the NEP (DHS, FCD 1, Nov. 2007, p. 7).
NIMS also provides for effective resource management and
mutual aid across jurisdictions and levels of government. As a condition of
receive Federal Preparedness grants and awards, local, state, territorial, and
tribal nation jurisdictions must implement NIMS procedures and report using
NIMS guidelines. NIMS Alerts announce the release of new NIMS guidance, tools,
and other resources. FEMA Regional NIMS Coordinators act as subject matter
experts regarding NIMS for the local, state, territorial, and tribal nation
governments within the 10 FEMA Regions, as well as for the FEMA Regional
Administrator and staff. The Incident Command System (ICS) has been established
to provide standardization through consistent terminology and established
organizational structures (FEMA, 2015).
What is interoperability communications and why is it so important?
During the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001, soon after the south building collapsed warnings were sent out to police radios to vacate the north building. Most police were able to vacate the building but over 121 firefighters were left in the North Tower to die. In total 411 first responders died that day: 343 firefighters from the New York City Fire Department, 37 police officers of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey Police Department (PAPD); 23 police officers of the New York City Police Department (NYPD); and 8 emergency medical technicians and paramedics from private emergency medical services.
Most firefighters did not get the police warning. The firefighter radio system failed frequently during the morning. Even if it had been reliable, it wasn’t linked to the police system. In addition, police and fire commanders didn’t communicate with each other during the event (Dwyer, 2002).
Interoperability communications is "the ability to exchange and make use of information" between agencies like the police and fire departments. It also applies to communications within organizations. Timmons (2007) indicates that radio communications is not the only interoperability failure. Since 9/11 first responder agencies have made headway by purchasing equipment that works among agencies. In addition, the equipment and systems are able to provide signals in remote locations or impenetrable building structures. However, other communication problems result from dysfunctional relationships among agencies, first responder stress in difficult situations, insufficient training and poor procedures and policies.
Interoperability communications can be enhanced by improving, not only equipment and systems, but also human behaviors and relationships. Areas of focus for training, according to Timmons (2007), are sensory overload, cognitive bias, speech center deficit, and suppressed emotions. Sensory overload occurs as soon as first responders arrive at the scene, where they are required to make critical decisions and give commands to others. Cognitive bias occurs when people disregard information that disconfirms their preconceptions. This can lead to an incomplete operational picture. Stress can alter voice pitch and inflection when talking on the radio. This is speech center deficit. Finally, first responders learn to be calm in an emergency situation. This is not always good because suppressing natural emotional responses can lead to elevated blood pressure and increased stress levels, disrupting communications, and inhibiting relationships.
What is the
difference between an emergency and a disaster?
A disaster is “an occurrence disrupting the normal
conditions of existence and causing a level of suffering that exceeds the
capacity of adjustment of the affected community…. A disaster occurs when
hazards and vulnerability meet” (WHO, 2002). A disaster is a sudden calamitous
event bringing great damage, loss, or destruction.
The difference between disaster and emergency is fairly big,
although an emergency situation can certainly feel like a disaster to those
involved. A disaster will likely affect more people and/or will have more
devastating consequences than that of an emergency. A disaster is an emergency situation if noticed ahead of time. However, not
all emergencies will reach the level of disasters.
An emergency is
defined as an unforeseen combination of circumstances or the resulting state
that calls for immediate action; an urgent need for assistance or relief.
Ken Jorgustin (2012) wrote: “When I think of disaster and
emergency, I consider a disaster to be widespread, regional, or wider. Examples
of a disaster may be the consequences of severe weather such as a hurricane,
tornado, or flooding. An economic meltdown followed by a rapid devaluation of
currency would be considered a disaster, affecting countless millions of
people. An emergency is a situation that requires immediate attention, a
situation that could lead to disaster if left alone or unattended. Or, maybe it
won’t, although it may seem like it to you nonetheless.”
Any disaster that arises from the physical phenomena—hurricanes,
floods, earthquakes, tornadoes, tsunamis—can be deemed a natural disaster.
Human-caused disasters may also be the direct result of natural conditions. For
example, the floods that devastated New Orleans during Hurricane Katrina in
August 2005 were caused by levees that burst, but it was the hurricane’s wind
and rain that caused the excess of water. Likewise, fires which may destroy
wildlands and communities may be human-caused or could result because of dry
conditions and electrical storms. The San Francisco fires in April 1906 were
caused by broken gas lines resulting from a major earthquake.
While natural disasters can strike anywhere, the poor
usually suffer more than the rich, because they lack the resources to rebuild
or to relocate. Infrastructure is usually better in wealthier communities and
countries. The poor in New Orleans were hardest hit because they built on the low ground and didn’t have the means to
evacuate. On January 12, 2010, a 7.3
magnitude earthquake struck Haiti, killing more than 220,000 people and injuring
over 300,000. The massive earthquake, the biggest the region had seen in 200
years, left more than 1.5 million people homeless, and resulted in an immense
humanitarian crisis. The devastation was
compounded by poor building practices and weak infrastructure.
In the United States,
government agencies can assist those who have lost their homes and possessions.
Numerous federal and state government agencies (including
non-governmental agencies) provide help to those in need when disaster
strikes, but often that assistance covers only part of what is needed. Also, it
is difficult to get protection such as homeowner’s insurance in areas prone to
damage from floods or hurricanes (US Legal, 2010).
Terrorism is a human-caused threat that is unpredictable and
can cause great loss of life and property. The recent terrorist attacks in
Paris, France on November 13, 2015, where more than 100 people died, served as a tragic reminder of September 11, 2001, the worst terrorist attack in history. On
September 11, 2001, a succession of four coordinated assaults was launched by
the al-Queda in the New York City and Washington DC areas. Four planes were
hijacked by 19 men and two of those planes, American Airlines Flight 11 and
United Airlines Flight 175, collided into the north and south towers of the NYC
World Trade Center, which collapsed within two hours and led to the destruction
of nearby buildings as well. The third plane, American Flight 77, targeted the
Pentagon in Virginia while the last one, United Airlines Flight 93 whose aim
was the Capitol in DC, crashed into a field in Pennsylvania when the passengers
tried to overpower the hijackers. These catastrophic events led to the deaths
of about 3,000 people.
Terrorism is the systematic use or threatened use of
violence to intimidate a population or government and thereby effect political,
religious, or ideological change.
Terrorist organizations in the United States today use techniques such
as hijacking, bombing, diplomatic kidnapping and assassination to assert their
demands (US Legal, 2010).
What do first
responders do in a disaster?
Emergencies happen very frequently whereas disasters may
occur only once or twice in the life of a first responder. Handling emergencies
(like car accidents, house fires, and response to crime) helps prepare first
responders to deal with disasters. The
role of first responders in responding to a disaster is very similar to the
day-to-day role of public safety and supporting the community. Because first
responders know their communities and interact with residents on a daily basis
they can respond quickly to a heightened crisis situation such as in a
disaster. For example, understanding unique community features, like
demographic and language characteristics, allows law enforcement officers to
help outside emergency management teams in a disaster. Their presence and
support in the community in a disaster has a calming effect that helps people
respond more appropriately.
During a disaster, police officers play a key role
in many operations, including search and
rescue, evacuations, door-to-door checks, and maintaining overall public safety
within the community. In addition to being involved in some of these same
functions, firefighters and paramedics are involved in suppressing fires,
handling hazardous materials, and first response medical care and
transportation to hospitals. These are critical actions that support not only
their own communities but neighboring towns as well (Hylton, 2013).
In the following excerpt, Roberto Hylton (2013) describes first responders working with college students following a tornado. “An EF-3 tornado impacted the nearby college campus and devastated neighborhoods and infrastructure. Emergency services were stretched to the max. Officers worked relentless hours, 48 hours straight in some cases, setting up and supporting emergency response and rescue operations. The scene was chaotic with debris and terrified college students, but the right training helped officers maintain public safety and conduct lifesaving missions.”
How are first
responders organized in a disaster? What is the Incident Command System (ICS)?
The National Incident Management System (NIMS) has adopted
the Incident Command System (ICS) and mandated its use by first responders in
emergencies and disasters. The Incident Command System is a standardized
management tool for meeting the demands of small or large emergency or
nonemergency situations. It represents "best practices" and has
become the standard for emergency management across the country. ICS may be
used for planned events, natural disasters, and acts of terrorism.
In the 1960s and 1970s,
first responder agencies noted that high cost of wildfires in Arizona and
California. Property damage ran into the millions, and many people died or were
injured. Studies indicated that response problems were often related to
communication and management deficiencies rather than lack of resources or
failure of tactics. In a meeting in 1968 Fire Chiefs in Phoenix, Arizona formulated
the ICS concept, based on the management hierarchy of the US Navy. During the 1970s, ICS was fully developed
during massive wildfire suppression efforts in California and following a
series of catastrophic wildfires in California's urban interface. ICS was developed
mainly for firefighting of wildfires in California and Arizona but was quickly adopted nationwide.
The ICS is a management system designed to enable effective
and efficient domestic incident management by integrating a combination of
facilities, equipment, personnel, procedures, and communications operating
within a common organizational structure, designed to enable effective and
efficient domestic incident management. A basic premise of ICS is that it is
widely applicable. It is used to organize both near-term and long-term field-level
operations for a broad spectrum of emergencies, from small to complex
incidents, both natural and manmade. ICS is used by all levels of
government—Federal, State, local, and tribal—as well as by many private-sector
and nongovernmental organizations. ICS is also applicable across disciplines.
It is normally structured to facilitate activities in five major functional
areas: command, operations, planning, logistics, and finance and administration
(FEMA, 2008).
The following chart shows the Incident Command System (ICS)
structure:
Source: FEMA. 2008, May). ICS Review Materials.
The Incident Commander is technically not a part of either
the General or Command Staff. According to FEMA (2008), the Incident Commander
is responsible for overall incident management, including:
- Ensuring clear authority and
knowledge of agency policy.
- Ensuring incident safety.
- Establishing an Incident Command
Post.
- Obtaining a briefing from the
prior Incident Commander and/or assessing the situation.
- Establishing immediate priorities.
- Determining incident objectives
and strategy(ies) to be followed.
- Establishing the level of
organization needed, and continuously monitoring the operation and effectiveness
of that organization.
- Managing planning meetings as
required.
- Approving and implementing the
Incident Action Plan.
- Coordinating the activities of the
Command and General Staff.
- Approving requests for additional
resources or for the release of resources.
- Approving the use of participants,
volunteers, and auxiliary personnel.
- Authorizing the release of
information to the news media.
- Ordering demobilization of the
incident when appropriate.
- Ensuring incident after-action
reports are completed.
Command Staff
The Command Staff is assigned to carry out staff functions
needed to support the Incident Commander. These functions include interagency
liaison, incident safety, and public information.
Command Staff positions are established to assign
responsibility for key activities not specifically identified in the General
Staff functional elements. These positions may include the Public Information
Officer, Safety Officer, and Liaison Officer, in addition to various others, as
required and assigned by the Incident Commander.
General Staff
The General Staff represents and is responsible for the
functional aspects of the incident command structure. The General Staff
typically consists of the Operations, Planning, Logistics, and Finance/Administration
Sections.
General guidelines related to General Staff positions (FEMA,
2008) include the following:
- Only one person will be designated
to lead each General Staff position.
- General Staff positions may be
filled by qualified persons from any agency or jurisdiction.
- Members of the General Staff
report directly to the Incident Commander. If a General Staff position is not
activated, the Incident Commander will have responsibility for that functional activity.
- Deputy positions may be
established for each of the General Staff positions. Deputies are individuals
fully qualified to fill the primary position. Deputies can be designated from
other jurisdictions or agencies, as appropriate. This is a good way to bring
about greater interagency coordination.
- General Staff members may exchange
information with any person within the organization. Direction takes place
through the chain of command. This is an important concept in ICS.
- General Staff positions should not
be combined. For example, to establish a "Planning and Logistics Section,”
it is better to initially create the two separate functions, and if necessary
for a short time place one person in charge of both. That way, the transfer of
responsibility can be made easier.
What role do first
responders play in preparing and helping the public for emergencies and
disasters?
Responding to disasters is a shared responsibility, and
those in law enforcement are aware that emergency management planning is for
all hazards and that it takes a team effort to keep our communities safe
(Hylton, 2013).
The law enforcement community has two vital roles in
responding to disasters: As first responders during times of crisis, and
providing for the safety and security of the community (Hylton, 2013). Firefighters,
emergency medical personnel, and hospitals have a similar role.
A key role of response agencies in disasters is to ensure
the continuity of services. Tobia (2013)
describes the problems first responders faced in a disaster: “You’re the station captain: look around your
office. If everything was gone in an instant—training records, computers,
phones, payroll systems, LOSAP records, personnel files—how would you
reconstitute your station? Walk out to the apparatus bay and imagine all of the
apparatus destroyed. Again, how would you provide essential services? If the
members of your company failed to post for duty because their homes and
families were severely affected by an event, who would respond to the calls for
help?”
Tobia (2013) makes the following recommendations, which I’ve
adapted to apply to all emergency services:
- Leaders in the emergency services must be closely tied to
their communities. They should never misinform the public about their capacity
to respond during extreme weather and other natural disasters.
- Emergency service leaders must lead by example by being
prepared and having a plan to keep their own
family members safe. This includes planning and practicing a home escape plan,
which also designates a meeting location away from a disaster in the event
families become separated. Families also need to have copies of all essential
documents, and cash, secured in a location away from their homes. Tobia (2013)
says first responders “should not jeopardize our public by being unprepared
ourselves.”
- Emergency service leaders must develop and maintain
Continuity of Operations Plans (COOPs) that deal with how to reconstitute their
organizations after a disaster. This means identifying and securing critical
hardware, software and supporting documentation before an event occurs. “COOPs
provide a roadmap to recovery while maintaining the ability to respond to calls
for service,” says Tobia (2013).
- Should a massive storm approach, emergency service leaders
may have to evacuate their apparatus, hardware, software, equipment and your
people, so that when the storm is over they can come back and assist the community
to respond and recover.
Tobia (2013) says: “Since Katrina, FEMA has dramatically
altered its language when speaking to the public. In 2008, when Gustav was
approaching Galveston, Texas, the message was loud and clear: “If you choose
not to evacuate, you will face certain death.” That is the first time I can
recall hearing such blunt and honest language from a federal agency whose
mission is to save lives. And that is exactly what they were doing—by educating
the public so that they could make the right decisions about their safety. As
firefighters, we have a similar obligation to not only echo those words but heed them.”
References:
Sauer LM, McCarthy ML, Knebel A, & Brewster P. (2009).
Major influences on hospital emergency management and disaster preparedness. Disaster Medicine and Public Health
Preparedness, 3(2): S68-73. doi:
10.1097/DMP.0b013e31819ef060.
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